Cannabinoids are naturally occurring compounds found in marijuana and hemp that can interact with the human body in remarkably different ways.

THC is responsible for most of marijuana’s intoxicating effects. CBD does not produce the same high and has become one of the most widely researched cannabis compounds. Lesser-known cannabinoids such as CBG, CBN, CBC, THCV and CBDV are increasingly appearing in marijuana and hemp products and attracting greater scientific interest.

Cannabinoids can influence the body through the endocannabinoid system and other biological pathways involved in functions such as pain, mood, sleep, appetite, memory and immune activity. Some cannabinoids have been studied extensively in humans, while research on others is still developing.

Growing evidence has examined CBN for sleep, CBG for anxiety and stress, THCV for appetite and metabolic effects, CBC for pain and inflammation, and numerous other potential applications. The strength of the evidence varies considerably between cannabinoids, with some supported by controlled human trials and others relying primarily on laboratory or animal research.

This guide explains the major cannabinoids found in marijuana and hemp, how they are produced, whether they are intoxicating, how they interact with the body and what scientific research has found about their potential effects and benefits.

Last updated: September 15, 2026

Cannabinoids at a Glance

Cannabinoid	Full Name	Intoxicating?	Research Status
THC	Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol	Yes	Extensive
CBD	Cannabidiol	No	Extensive
CBG	Cannabigerol	No	Early but growing
CBN	Cannabinol	Not typically	Growing; multiple controlled human sleep trials
CBC	Cannabichromene	No	Limited; mostly preclinical
THCV	Tetrahydrocannabivarin	Not typically at studied doses; effects are dose-dependent	Limited, including controlled trials
CBDV	Cannabidivarin	No	Limited; includes Phase II clinical research
THCA	Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid	No, unless converted to THC	Limited; mostly preclinical
CBDA	Cannabidiolic acid	No	Limited; mostly preclinical, with early human research
CBGA	Cannabigerolic acid	No	Limited; mostly preclinical
CBCA	Cannabichromenic acid	No	Limited; mostly preclinical
THCP	Tetrahydrocannabiphorol	Likely, based on preclinical evidence	Limited; primarily laboratory and animal research
Delta-8 THC	Delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol	Yes	Limited; includes controlled human studies

What Are Cannabinoids?

Cannabinoids are a broad family of chemical compounds that can interact with cannabinoid receptors or other biological signaling systems.

The marijuana plant produces a large number of these compounds. Researchers have identified well over 100 phytocannabinoids, with recent scientific reviews describing more than 150 and, depending on how related compounds are classified, roughly 160 minor cannabinoids.

THC and CBD account for the overwhelming majority of cannabinoid research. CBG, CBN, CBC, THCV, CBDV and acidic cannabinoids such as THCA and CBDA have attracted growing scientific interest, but their evidence bases remain much smaller.

Cannabinoids are not all chemically or pharmacologically interchangeable. Two compounds can come from the same plant and have dramatically different effects.

The Three Main Types of Cannabinoids

The word cannabinoid does not refer only to compounds found in marijuana. Cannabinoids can generally be divided into three broad categories: phytocannabinoids, endocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids.

Phytocannabinoids

Phytocannabinoids are cannabinoids that occur naturally in plants or plant material, most notably Cannabis sativa.

Cannabis produces a large number of cannabinoids, including:

THC
CBD
CBG
CBN
CBC
THCV
CBDV
THCA
CBDA
CBGA
CBCA
THCP
Delta-8 THC

This distinction is especially important for some minor cannabinoids. The marijuana plant enzymatically produces major acidic precursors such as THCA, CBDA and CBCA from CBGA, while other cannabinoids can arise later through nonenzymatic chemical changes. CBN, for example, is primarily an oxidation product of THC rather than a cannabinoid directly synthesized by the plant. Delta-8 THC can occur naturally in trace amounts, but chemical transformation and isomerization are important sources of the compound, particularly in commercial products.

These include many of the cannabinoids commonly found in marijuana and hemp products, as well as acidic precursor compounds such as THCA, CBDA and CBGA.

Endocannabinoids

Endocannabinoids are cannabinoids produced naturally by the human body.

The two best studied are:

Anandamide, also known as AEA

2-arachidonoylglycerol, commonly called 2-AG

The body produces these compounds regardless of whether a person uses marijuana.

Endocannabinoids are part of the endocannabinoid system, a signaling network that helps regulate numerous physiological processes, including pain, appetite, mood, memory, sleep, immune activity and other functions.

Synthetic and Semisynthetic Cannabinoids

Scientists can also manufacture compounds that interact with cannabinoid receptors.

Some are legitimate medications or research compounds. Dronabinol, for example, is synthetic delta-9 THC used in FDA-approved prescription medications.

Others are recreational compounds manufactured through chemical conversion or synthesis.

Commercial delta-8 THC is a good example. Delta-8 occurs naturally in cannabis only in small quantities, so much of the concentrated delta-8 sold commercially is produced by chemically converting CBD.

Synthetic cannabinoid drugs sold illicitly under names such as Spice or K2 are another category entirely. They can activate cannabinoid receptors much more strongly and unpredictably than THC and should not be confused with marijuana.

How Many Cannabinoids Are in Marijuana?

There is no single universally agreed number because scientists continue identifying and characterizing compounds, and classification methods can differ.

Older references commonly state that cannabis contains more than 100 cannabinoids.

More recent scientific literature describes more than 150 identified phytocannabinoids, while a 2026 review reports that about 160 minor cannabinoids have been identified in Cannabis sativa.

Only a relatively small number occur in significant concentrations or have been studied extensively enough to be familiar to most consumers.

THC and CBD remain by far the best known.

How the Marijuana Plant Makes Cannabinoids

One of the most important things to understand about cannabinoids is that the living marijuana plant does not primarily manufacture THC and CBD in the forms consumers recognize.

Instead, it produces acidic cannabinoids.

A key compound is cannabigerolic acid, or CBGA.

CBGA can be converted by plant enzymes into several major cannabinoid acids, including:

CBGA → THCA
CBGA → CBDA
CBGA → CBCA

Those compounds can then lose a carbon dioxide molecule through a process called decarboxylation:

THCA → THC
CBDA → CBD
CBCA → CBC
CBGA → CBG

Heat accelerates this process.

That is why smoking, vaping or cooking marijuana changes its cannabinoid chemistry.

Why Is CBG Called the “Mother of All Cannabinoids”?

CBG is frequently called the “mother cannabinoid” because it is closely connected to the biological pathway marijuana and hemp plants use to produce THC, CBD and several other cannabinoids.

More precisely, CBGA, or cannabigerolic acid, is the major biosynthetic precursor. Cannabis plants use CBGA to produce THCA, CBDA and CBCA, the acidic precursors that can subsequently become THC, CBD and CBC through decarboxylation.

Researchers have identified separate enzymes that convert CBGA into THCA, CBDA and CBCA, making CBGA an important branching point in cannabinoid production.

CBG itself is primarily produced when CBGA undergoes decarboxylation. This means the popular “mother cannabinoid” nickname is rooted in genuine cannabinoid biology, although technically it is CBGA, rather than neutral CBG, that serves as the direct precursor in this pathway.

What Is Decarboxylation?

Decarboxylation is a chemical reaction in which cannabinoid acids lose a carboxyl group and become their neutral forms.

The best-known example is:

THCA → THC

Fresh marijuana flower typically contains much more THCA than active delta-9 THC.

Heating the flower through smoking, vaping or cooking rapidly converts much of that THCA into THC.

Decarboxylation also occurs gradually during drying, aging and storage.

The same process converts CBDA into CBD, CBGA into CBG and CBCA into CBC.

What Is the Endocannabinoid System?

The endocannabinoid system, often abbreviated ECS, is a biological signaling network present throughout the human body.

Its major components include:

Cannabinoid receptors

Endocannabinoids produced by the body

Enzymes responsible for producing and breaking down endocannabinoids

The two best-characterized endocannabinoids are anandamide and 2-AG.

They help regulate signaling between cells and are involved in processes that include appetite, pain, memory, stress responses, immune function and nervous-system activity.

Importantly, the endocannabinoid system did not evolve because humans consume marijuana.

Scientists discovered the system after studying how THC affects the body. The receptors already existed because the body produces its own signaling molecules that activate them.

What Are CB1 and CB2 Receptors?

CB1 and CB2 are the two best-established cannabinoid receptors.

CB1 Receptors

CB1 receptors are particularly abundant in the brain and central nervous system, although they are also found elsewhere in the body.

Their distribution helps explain many of THC’s effects.

When THC activates CB1 receptors, it can alter:

• Mood
• Memory
• Appetite
• Coordination
• Perception
• Pain processing
• Reward
• Time perception

This CB1 activity is also the main reason THC can produce intoxication.

CB2 Receptors

CB2 receptors are strongly associated with immune cells and peripheral tissues, although researchers have also identified CB2 activity within the nervous system.

They are involved in immune and inflammatory signaling.

The old description that CB1 exists only in the brain while CB2 exists only in the immune system is too simplistic. Both receptor systems have broader distributions.

Not Every Cannabinoid Works Mainly Through CB1 and CB2

This is another common misconception.

THC has substantial direct activity at CB1 and CB2 receptors.

CBD does not.

CBD has relatively low affinity for the classic cannabinoid receptors and appears to influence numerous molecular targets and signaling pathways.

Minor cannabinoids can interact with systems including:

Transient receptor potential, or TRP, channels

Serotonin receptors

Adrenergic receptors

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, or PPARs

GPR55

Other enzymes, receptors and ion channels

This is why describing every cannabinoid simply as something that “binds to the endocannabinoid system” misses much of their pharmacology.

THC: Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol

THC is the primary intoxicating cannabinoid in marijuana.

When people say “THC” without specifying a form, they usually mean delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, or delta-9 THC.

THC acts primarily as a partial agonist of the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors. Its activity at CB1 receptors in the brain is largely responsible for marijuana’s characteristic high and many of its effects on appetite, memory, perception and movement.

Possible acute effects can include:

• Euphoria
• Relaxation
• Altered sensory perception
• Increased appetite
• Changes in time perception
• Drowsiness
• Reduced short-term memory
• Slower reaction time
• Impaired coordination
• Anxiety or paranoia in some people

THC is one of the most thoroughly studied cannabinoids, with research examining its effects on pain, nausea and vomiting, appetite, sleep, neurological conditions and numerous other areas.

THC also has established medical applications. The FDA has approved medications containing dronabinol, a synthetic form of delta-9 THC, for chemotherapy-related nausea and vomiting and for anorexia associated with weight loss in people with AIDS.

The FDA has also approved nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid with a chemical structure similar to THC, for nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy.

While these individual cannabinoid medications have received FDA approval, the marijuana plant itself has not been approved by the FDA as a treatment for any disease or condition.

For a much deeper look at THC, see The Marijuana Herald’s complete guide to THC.

CBD: Cannabidiol

CBD is one of the best-known and most extensively studied cannabinoids in marijuana and hemp, and it differs substantially from THC.

It is generally non-intoxicating and does not produce marijuana’s characteristic high. Unlike THC, CBD does not strongly activate CB1 receptors in the brain.

Instead, CBD has a complex pharmacological profile involving the endocannabinoid system and numerous other molecular targets. These include signaling pathways involved in pain, inflammation, mood, neurological function and immune activity.

CBD has been studied for potential applications involving:

• Epilepsy
• Anxiety
• Pain
• Inflammation
• Sleep
• Neurological disorders
• Psychiatric disorders

The strongest established clinical evidence involves certain seizure disorders. The FDA-approved medication Epidiolex contains purified cannabis-derived CBD and is approved for seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, Dravet syndrome and tuberous sclerosis complex.

Randomized controlled trials have shown significant seizure reductions with CBD, including a 225-person trial involving Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and a 120-person trial involving Dravet syndrome.

Research into CBD extends well beyond epilepsy. Human studies and scientific reviews have examined its potential effects on anxiety, pain, inflammation, psychiatric conditions and other therapeutic applications.

The amount and strength of evidence varies by condition, but CBD has one of the largest and most developed research bases of any cannabinoid outside of THC.

Where Is the Strongest Evidence for CBD?

Some of the strongest clinical evidence for CBD involves certain severe seizure disorders.

The FDA-approved medication Epidiolex contains purified cannabis-derived CBD and is approved to treat seizures associated with:

• Lennox-Gastaut syndrome
• Dravet syndrome
• Tuberous sclerosis complex

The approval is backed by multiple randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials. In a study involving 225 people with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, CBD significantly reduced the frequency of drop seizures compared with placebo.

A separate randomized trial involving 120 children and young adults with Dravet syndrome found that CBD significantly reduced convulsive seizure frequency compared with placebo.

Clinical research has also shown significant reductions in seizures among people with tuberous sclerosis complex, leading the FDA to expand Epidiolex’s approved uses to include seizures associated with the condition.

These findings establish CBD as an effective treatment for certain seizure disorders when used as a standardized prescription medication. Over-the-counter CBD oils and other consumer products can differ substantially in dose, formulation and quality, so results from Epidiolex trials cannot automatically be applied to every CBD product.

Research into CBD extends well beyond epilepsy, including studies examining anxiety, pain, inflammation, sleep and other neurological and psychiatric conditions. The amount and strength of human evidence varies by use, but CBD remains one of the most extensively studied cannabinoids.

Is CBD Completely Risk-Free?

CBD has generally been well tolerated in human studies, but like other biologically active compounds, it can produce side effects and interact with medications.

Potential effects can include:

• Drowsiness
• Diarrhea
• Changes in appetite
• Drug interactions
• Changes in liver enzymes

A 2025 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial involving healthy adults provided important new information about CBD and liver health. Participants received CBD at 5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day for four weeks, equivalent to roughly 250 to 550 milligrams daily. Among those receiving CBD, 5.6% developed liver enzyme elevations greater than three times the upper limit of normal, compared with none of those receiving placebo.

Importantly, participants experiencing the elevations did not develop clinical symptoms related to liver function, and their liver enzyme levels returned to normal within one to two weeks after CBD was discontinued.

CBD can also affect how the body metabolizes certain medications, potentially altering their concentrations or effects. People taking prescription medications, particularly those using CBD regularly or at higher doses, may want to discuss possible interactions with a healthcare provider.

CBG: Cannabigerol

CBG is one of the most prominent minor cannabinoids found in marijuana and hemp.

It is generally considered non-intoxicating and does not produce the characteristic high associated with THC.

CBG has a complex pharmacological profile, interacting with cannabinoid receptors as well as adrenergic receptors, serotonin receptors and several TRP channels involved in processes such as pain, inflammation and sensory signaling.

Research has investigated CBG for potential effects involving:

• Anxiety and stress
• Inflammation
• Pain
• Neurological conditions
• Gastrointestinal disorders
• Appetite
• Sleep
• Antibacterial activity

Much of the research remains preclinical, but controlled human studies are beginning to provide a clearer picture of CBG’s effects, including research examining anxiety, stress, memory, sleep and quality of life.

What Does Human Research Say About CBG?

A 2024 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial tested 20 milligrams of hemp-derived CBG in 34 healthy adults.

Researchers found that CBG significantly reduced anxiety and stress compared with placebo and unexpectedly improved performance on a verbal memory test. Participants showed no evidence of intoxication or motor impairment.

A more recent randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled trial involved 63 U.S. veterans with sleep problems. Participants received 25 milligrams of CBG daily for two weeks followed by 50 milligrams daily for another two weeks, or placebo.

Sleep scores improved in both groups, although researchers did not find a statistically significant difference between CBG and placebo. CBG was generally well tolerated.

Together, these trials show that controlled human CBG research is beginning to expand beyond preclinical studies, with particularly interesting early findings involving anxiety, stress, memory and sleep.

CBN: Cannabinol

CBN is unusual among cannabinoids because it is associated less with fresh marijuana production than with the gradual breakdown of THC.

As THC is exposed to oxygen, light and time, some of it can oxidize into CBN. Research examining aged cannabis has identified CBN as a major degradation product of delta-9 THC.

That is why older marijuana can contain higher concentrations of CBN than freshly harvested flower.

CBN interacts with cannabinoid receptors but has substantially weaker intoxicating effects than delta-9 THC. Early controlled human research found that CBN alone produced little evidence of the characteristic THC-like high, although it may influence some of THC’s effects when the two are consumed together.

CBN has attracted particular attention for its potential effects on sleep. Human research in this area has expanded considerably in recent years, including randomized controlled trials examining sleep disturbance, insomnia and different CBN doses. A 2026 systematic review and meta-analysis concluded that CBN doses between 20 and 100 milligrams showed potential for improving sleep in the studies it evaluated.

CBN and Sleep

There is now meaningful human evidence that CBN may improve sleep, although the findings remain mixed and CBN has not been established as a clinically proven sleep medication.

One of the largest trials to date was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study involving 1,020 adults with sleep disturbances. Participants received either 25, 50 or 100 milligrams of CBN, 4 milligrams of melatonin or a placebo for four weeks.

Participants receiving any of the three CBN doses experienced significantly greater improvements in self-reported sleep-disturbance scores over time compared with placebo. However, the proportion achieving the study’s threshold for a clinically meaningful improvement did not differ significantly between the treatment groups and placebo. Researchers also found no statistically significant differences in sleep improvement between the CBN groups and the melatonin group.

Other controlled research has produced less definitive results. A randomized study involving 293 participants with poor sleep found that 20 milligrams of CBN did not significantly improve the primary sleep-quality outcome compared with placebo, although participants reported fewer nighttime awakenings and lower overall sleep disturbance.

A separate randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial published in 2026 studied 20 adults with physician-diagnosed insomnia. CBN did not significantly improve the primary outcome of wake time after sleep onset, although the 300-milligram dose improved some secondary outcomes, including subjective sleep quality and sleep-onset latency.

Taken together, the research provides legitimate evidence that CBN may have sleep-related effects, particularly at certain doses, but the evidence is not yet consistent enough to describe CBN as a proven treatment for insomnia.

CBC: Cannabichromene

CBC is a naturally occurring cannabinoid produced when cannabichromenic acid, or CBCA, undergoes decarboxylation.

CBC is generally considered non-intoxicating and, unlike THC, has little direct activity at CB1 receptors. Instead, it interacts with several other molecular targets, including TRP channels involved in pain, inflammation and sensory signaling.

Research has identified potential CBC applications involving:

• Pain
• Inflammation
• Neuroprotection
• Antimicrobial activity
• Mood-related pathways
• Dermatological conditions
• Cancer-related mechanisms

A major 2026 scientific review of CBC found substantial preclinical evidence supporting potential anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, anticancer, neuroprotective, antidepressant and dermatological effects. The researchers described CBC as a promising but comparatively understudied cannabinoid and called for expanded clinical research.

Human research remains at an early stage. A randomized clinical study involving 43 participants has examined how CBC is absorbed and processed by the human body as part of a cannabis preparation containing CBD, THC and CBC, providing some of the first human pharmacokinetic data for the cannabinoid. The study was not designed to determine whether CBC itself produced therapeutic benefits.

Taken together, laboratory and animal research has identified a wide range of potentially useful biological effects for CBC, while human studies are still needed to determine which of those effects translate into clinical benefits.

THCV: Tetrahydrocannabivarin

THCV is a naturally occurring cannabinoid with a molecular structure similar to THC, but the two compounds can produce substantially different biological effects.

THCV belongs to a group of cannabinoids with shorter propyl side chains. Its activity varies depending on dose and biological context, including complex interactions with CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors. Research has found that THCV can act as a CB1 antagonist under certain conditions while also displaying activity at CB2 and other biological targets.

THCV has attracted particular scientific and commercial interest for its potential effects on appetite, body weight, glucose regulation and metabolism. These properties have led to nicknames such as “diet marijuana” and “skinny THC,” although the cannabinoid is pharmacologically distinct from delta-9 THC. A 2025 scientific review highlighted THCV’s distinct pharmacology and its potential for unique health and therapeutic applications.

Human research has begun producing encouraging metabolic findings. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study involving 62 people with type 2 diabetes, THCV significantly reduced fasting blood glucose and improved measures of pancreatic beta-cell function compared with placebo. THCV was also well tolerated.

More recently, a placebo-controlled study involving 44 adults found significant weight loss and reductions in abdominal circumference among participants receiving combinations of THCV and CBD for 90 days. The higher-dose group received 16 milligrams of THCV and 20 milligrams of CBD daily and experienced greater weight loss than the lower-dose group. Because THCV was administered alongside CBD, however, the study cannot determine how much of the effect was attributable specifically to THCV.

Together, the findings provide an emerging human evidence base for THCV’s potential metabolic applications, including glucose regulation and weight management, while larger studies are needed to determine optimal doses and the effects of THCV when used on its own.

THCV, Appetite and Weight Management

THCV has attracted growing interest for its potential effects on appetite, body weight and metabolic health.

One randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial involving 62 people with type 2 diabetes tested THCV, CBD and combinations of the two for 13 weeks. Participants receiving 5 milligrams of THCV twice daily experienced significant reductions in fasting blood glucose and improvements in pancreatic beta-cell function compared with placebo. THCV was also well tolerated.

More recently, a placebo-controlled study involving 44 adults examined combinations of THCV and CBD administered daily for 90 days. Participants receiving either 8 milligrams of THCV with 10 milligrams of CBD or 16 milligrams of THCV with 20 milligrams of CBD experienced significant reductions in body weight and abdominal circumference compared with placebo, with greater weight loss observed at the higher dose.

Because THCV was combined with CBD in that study, the results cannot establish how much of the weight-loss effect was attributable to THCV alone. However, the findings add to growing human evidence suggesting THCV may have potentially useful metabolic effects.

Other human research has examined how THCV affects the brain’s response to food. In a randomized, double-blind study involving 20 healthy adults, a 10-milligram dose of THCV altered activity in brain regions involved in responses to rewarding and aversive food stimuli, although participants did not report significant changes in their subjective ratings of the foods.

Together, the findings provide an emerging scientific basis for interest in THCV for weight management and metabolic health, although larger studies of THCV by itself are needed to determine its effects on appetite and long-term weight loss.

Does THCV Get You High?

THCV has a chemical structure similar to THC, but it does not consistently produce the characteristic high associated with delta-9 THC.

In a placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover study involving 10 participants, 10 milligrams of oral delta-9 THCV taken daily for five days was well tolerated and subjectively indistinguishable from placebo. When participants subsequently received THC, THCV also reduced the perceived intensity of some THC effects.

Another randomized, double-blind study involving 20 healthy adults found no significant differences in subjective experience after participants received 10 milligrams of THCV compared with placebo, even though brain imaging detected changes in functional connectivity.

Research involving much larger doses of the less-studied delta-8 isomer of THCV has also found that its effects vary with dose, reinforcing that different forms and doses of THCV should not automatically be treated as equivalent.

Based on available human evidence, delta-9 THCV at studied doses does not appear to reliably produce the classic intoxication associated with THC. Its pharmacology is distinct from delta-9 THC, and researchers continue to investigate how its effects change with dose and formulation.

CBDV: Cannabidivarin

CBDV is structurally related to CBD and, like CBD, is generally considered non-intoxicating.

Researchers have shown particular interest in CBDV for neurological and neurodevelopmental conditions, including epilepsy, neuropathic pain and autism.

One of the largest human studies was a Phase II randomized controlled trial involving 162 adults with inadequately controlled focal seizures. Participants receiving CBDV experienced a 40.5% reduction in seizure frequency from baseline during treatment. The placebo group also experienced a substantial 37.7% reduction, meaning the difference between the groups was not statistically significant. The researchers said the CBDV reduction was consistent with a pharmacological response, but the unusually large placebo response prevented the trial from demonstrating superiority over placebo.

CBDV has also produced measurable effects on the human brain in controlled studies. In a double-blind crossover study involving adults with and without autism spectrum disorder, a single 600-milligram dose of CBDV altered glutamate and GABA-related signaling, two major systems involved in regulating brain excitation and inhibition.

A related placebo-controlled neuroimaging study found that CBDV altered functional connectivity in adults with autism, including reducing some patterns of atypical connectivity toward levels observed in participants without autism. Researchers described the findings as preliminary proof of concept that CBDV can modulate brain circuitry associated with autism, although the study was not designed to determine whether those changes improved symptoms.

CBDV has also been tested in a randomized crossover trial involving 32 people with HIV-associated neuropathic pain. That study did not find a statistically significant reduction in pain compared with placebo, illustrating that CBDV’s potential effects may differ considerably depending on the condition being studied.

CBDV has not yet reached an established medical use comparable with prescription CBD, but controlled human research has demonstrated biological activity and continues to provide a foundation for investigating its potential neurological applications.

CBE: Cannabielsoin

CBE, short for cannabielsoin, is a lesser-known cannabinoid that can form from CBD through oxidation and other chemical transformations.

Because it is related to CBD, CBE is generally discussed as part of the broader family of non-intoxicating cannabinoids found in marijuana and hemp. It has received far less attention than CBD itself, but researchers have become increasingly interested in its distinct pharmacological activity.

A 2024 study found that CBE can act as a biased agonist at the CB1 receptor, meaning it may interact with the body’s endocannabinoid system in a way that differs from both THC and CBD. 2024 CBE study

Although research remains early, CBE is one of several minor cannabinoids helping scientists better understand how structurally related cannabis compounds may produce different biological effects. Like many rare cannabinoids, it remains far less studied than THC and CBD, and there is little human research specifically focused on it.

Still, its emergence in recent pharmacology research suggests it could become a more important cannabinoid to watch as interest in minor cannabinoids continues to grow.

THCA: Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid

THCA is the naturally occurring acidic precursor to delta-9 THC and is one of the major cannabinoids found in fresh marijuana flower.

Freshly harvested marijuana generally contains substantially more THCA than active delta-9 THC. In some varieties, THCA can account for the vast majority of the plant’s total potential THC.

THCA does not produce the characteristic marijuana high in its unheated form. It has its own biological activity, however, and researchers have investigated potential anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory and other therapeutic properties. A recent review of acidic cannabinoids highlighted THCA and related compounds as an expanding area of pharmacological research.

When THCA is exposed to sufficient heat, it undergoes a process called decarboxylation, which removes a carboxyl group and converts THCA into intoxicating delta-9 THC.

That means:

• Smoking converts substantial amounts of THCA to THC.
• Vaping converts THCA to THC.
• Cooking or baking marijuana can convert THCA to THC.
• Storage and aging can gradually convert some THCA into THC even without intentional heating.

This distinction is particularly important for high-THCA flower. Although THCA itself is not considered intoxicating in the same way as THC, flower containing large amounts of THCA can become strongly intoxicating when smoked, vaporized or otherwise heated because much of that THCA is converted into THC.

At the same time, unheated THCA is increasingly being studied as a cannabinoid in its own right rather than simply as the chemical precursor to THC.

Potential Medical Benefits of THCA

THCA is increasingly being studied for potential therapeutic properties that are distinct from the intoxicating effects of THC.

A 2026 review of acidic cannabinoids found that THCA and related acidic cannabinoids exhibit biological activity involving pathways associated with inflammation, neuroprotection, seizures and cell proliferation. Researchers highlighted mechanisms involving targets such as PPARγ, TRP channels and other signaling systems.

Some of the strongest preclinical evidence involves inflammation and neurological conditions. In one study, THCA activated PPARγ and produced neuroprotective effects in cellular and animal models of Huntington’s disease, improving motor deficits and reducing neuroinflammation.

Another study found that THCA reduced inflammation and joint damage in an animal model of arthritis, with researchers identifying activity involving both PPARγ and cannabinoid receptors.

THCA has also shown potential anti-nausea effects. In animal research, THCA reduced nausea-related behavior and vomiting without producing the behavioral effects typically associated with THC.

Human research remains much less developed than the preclinical evidence, but THCA is increasingly being studied as a biologically active cannabinoid in its own right rather than simply as the chemical precursor to THC. A 2025 controlled human laboratory study demonstrated that orally consumed THCA can be absorbed and measured in the bloodstream, although the study was designed to examine pharmacokinetics rather than therapeutic effectiveness.

CBDA: Cannabidiolic Acid

CBDA is the naturally occurring acidic precursor to CBD. It is abundant in some forms of raw cannabis and hemp and converts into CBD through decarboxylation when exposed to sufficient heat.

Like CBD, CBDA is generally considered non-intoxicating, but research suggests it has its own pharmacological properties rather than functioning simply as an inactive precursor.

Scientists have investigated CBDA for potential effects involving nausea and vomiting, inflammation, seizures and serotonin-related pathways. A 2026 review of acidic cannabinoids identified CBDA and related compounds as promising areas of therapeutic research, with biological activity distinct from their decarboxylated counterparts.

CBDA has attracted particular attention for nausea. In animal research, CBDA substantially reduced nausea-related behavior and vomiting while enhancing signaling through the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor, a pathway involved in nausea, anxiety and other neurological processes. Additional experiments found that these anti-nausea effects could be maintained with repeated administration.

Research has also identified potential anti-inflammatory activity. A laboratory study found that CBDA selectively inhibited the inflammatory enzyme COX-2, providing one possible mechanism for its anti-inflammatory effects. Preclinical studies have also examined CBDA for anticonvulsant activity.

Human research is beginning to provide additional information about how CBDA behaves in the body. In a 2025 double-blind, placebo-controlled human laboratory study, researchers found that CBDA was readily absorbed from an oral full-spectrum cannabinoid product and reached substantially higher peak blood concentrations than CBD. The study was not designed to test CBDA as a treatment for a particular condition.

One challenge for future CBDA research is its chemical stability, because CBDA can gradually convert into CBD during heating, processing and storage. Researchers have therefore also investigated more stable forms and formulations that could make its potential therapeutic properties easier to study.

CBGA: Cannabigerolic Acid

CBGA is one of the most important cannabinoids for understanding how marijuana and hemp plants create their chemical profiles.

Often described as a major “parent” cannabinoid, CBGA serves as a central biosynthetic precursor used by the plant to produce:

• THCA
• CBDA
• CBCA

Specialized enzymes convert CBGA into each of these acidic cannabinoids, which can later become THC, CBD and CBC through decarboxylation. This is why CBGA, rather than CBG itself, is the compound most accurately described as the direct precursor to several major cannabinoids. Review of minor cannabinoid biosynthesis and pharmacology

CBGA can also undergo decarboxylation to form CBG.

Researchers are increasingly studying CBGA for biological effects of its own. A recent review of acidic cannabinoids highlighted potential neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant and other biological activities across this group of compounds. 2026 review of acidic cannabinoids

Preclinical research has produced particularly interesting findings involving inflammation and neurological conditions. In one study, CBGA reduced kidney injury and suppressed inflammatory signaling in an animal model of nephropathy. CBGA kidney inflammation study Another study found that CBGA interacted with multiple epilepsy-related biological targets and demonstrated anticonvulsant activity in several experimental seizure models. CBGA epilepsy study

CBGA therefore plays two scientifically important roles: it is a central building block for the plant’s better-known cannabinoids and an increasingly studied cannabinoid with biological activity of its own.

CBCA: Cannabichromenic Acid

CBCA is the naturally occurring acidic precursor to CBC and an important part of the marijuana plant’s cannabinoid biosynthesis pathway.

The plant produces CBCA from CBGA using an enzyme known as cannabichromenic acid synthase, or CBCAS. Researchers demonstrated that this enzyme converts CBGA into CBCA, establishing the biochemical pathway through which the plant produces CBC. Cannabichromenic acid synthase study

When CBCA undergoes decarboxylation, it becomes CBC, a non-intoxicating cannabinoid being studied for potential anti-inflammatory, pain-modulating, neuroprotective and other effects.

CBCA itself remains less studied than CBC, but interest in the compound and its production is growing. Recent research has focused on improving the efficiency of CBCAS and developing biological systems capable of producing greater quantities of CBCA and CBC. A 2026 study, for example, successfully engineered forms of CBCAS with substantially increased enzymatic activity. 2026 CBCAS study

CBCA is also included among the acidic cannabinoids receiving increased attention for their biological activity and potential therapeutic applications, although research specifically examining CBCA in humans remains at an early stage. 2026 review of acidic cannabinoids

CBL: Cannabicyclol

CBL, or cannabicyclol, is a minor cannabinoid that forms when CBC is exposed to light and degrades over time.

That makes CBL somewhat similar to CBN, which forms as THC ages and oxidizes. In this case, however, CBL is tied to the breakdown of CBC rather than THC. Researchers have described CBL as a recognized phytocannabinoid and part of the broader range of naturally occurring minor cannabinoids found in cannabis. Review of phytocannabinoids CBC-to-CBL reference

For many years, CBL remained one of the more obscure cannabinoids, with relatively little known about its biological activity. That has started to change. A 2025 study found that CBL interacted strongly with the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor and acted as a positive allosteric modulator of serotonin signaling. 2025 CBL study

A 2026 study added to that research, finding that CBL produced anti-inflammatory effects and reduced cold allodynia in animal models, while showing little evidence of CB1-mediated intoxicating activity. 2026 CBL study

Although human research is still lacking, these findings suggest CBL may have therapeutic potential and deserves more attention than it has historically received.

THCP: Tetrahydrocannabiphorol

THCP is a naturally occurring cannabinoid that attracted substantial scientific attention after researchers first identified it in Cannabis sativa in 2019.

Its molecular structure resembles delta-9 THC, but THCP has a longer seven-carbon side chain. In the original 2019 discovery study, THCP displayed exceptionally strong affinity for the human CB1 receptor, with researchers reporting roughly 33 times greater binding affinity than delta-9 THC. It also showed strong activity at CB2 receptors.

Animal experiments in the same study found that THCP produced several classic THC-like cannabinoid effects, including reduced movement, analgesic effects, lower body temperature and catalepsy, providing evidence that THCP is a biologically active cannabinoid with substantial cannabimimetic activity.

More recent laboratory research has continued to support THCP’s high potency at cannabinoid receptors. A 2024 study examining CB1 receptor activation found that THCP and several other extended-chain THC homologs displayed greater CB1-activating potential than delta-9 THC based on measures of potency or efficacy.

How Potent Is THCP?

THCP appears to have unusually strong activity at the CB1 receptor, which is primarily responsible for the intoxicating effects of THC.

The frequently cited claim that THCP is “33 times stronger than THC” comes from the approximately 33-fold difference in CB1 receptor binding affinity reported in the original laboratory study. That finding is scientifically significant, but binding affinity does not translate directly into an identical increase in the strength of a human high.

A cannabinoid’s effects in people can also depend on:

• Dose
• How much reaches the bloodstream
• How readily it enters the brain
• How strongly it activates receptors after binding
• Metabolism and active metabolites
• Route of administration
• Individual biology

There have not yet been controlled human trials establishing a precise potency ratio between THCP and delta-9 THC. Human pharmacological data for THCP and several related THC homologs remain limited.

Still, the available laboratory and animal evidence supports THCP as a particularly potent cannabinoid receptor agonist with THC-like activity. The best-supported description is that THCP has substantially greater CB1 binding affinity than delta-9 THC and may produce powerful cannabinoid effects, while its exact potency and effects in humans remain an important area for future research.

Delta-8 THC

Delta-8 THC is a naturally occurring cannabinoid and close chemical relative of delta-9 THC, the primary intoxicating compound in marijuana.

It occurs naturally in cannabis, but usually at relatively low concentrations. As a result, most concentrated delta-8 products are produced by chemically converting hemp-derived CBD into delta-8 THC rather than extracting large quantities directly from the plant. The FDA explains that concentrated delta-8 THC is commonly manufactured from hemp-derived CBD.

Delta-8 is intoxicating and produces effects broadly similar to delta-9 THC, although controlled human research suggests it is less potent on a milligram-for-milligram basis.

In a 2025 randomized, double-blind crossover trial involving 19 adults, researchers compared oral doses of 10, 20 and 40 milligrams of delta-8 THC with 20 milligrams of delta-9 THC and placebo. Delta-8 produced dose-dependent psychoactive effects. A 20-milligram dose generally produced weaker drug effects and less cognitive and psychomotor impairment than the same dose of delta-9 THC, while 40 milligrams of delta-8 produced effects similar to 20 milligrams of delta-9 THC on many measures.

A separate 2025 controlled study of vaporized delta-8 THC involving 20 adults also directly compared delta-8 with delta-9 THC, adding to the growing human evidence characterizing delta-8’s intoxicating and physiological effects.

These studies provide some of the clearest controlled human evidence to date that delta-8 produces genuine THC-like effects while generally requiring a higher dose than delta-9 THC to produce comparable effects.

Because naturally occurring delta-8 levels are low, commercially available products can also raise manufacturing considerations that do not necessarily apply to marijuana containing naturally produced delta-9 THC. The FDA has warned that some chemical conversion processes may leave contaminants or unintended reaction byproducts in finished products, particularly when manufacturing is poorly controlled. The agency has also received adverse-event reports involving delta-8 products.

Research into delta-8 remains much smaller than the extensive literature on delta-9 THC, but recent controlled human studies have substantially expanded what is known about its potency and effects.

What About Delta-10 THC, HHC and Other New Cannabinoids?

Consumers may encounter products containing compounds such as:

Delta-10 THC

HHC

THC-O

HHCP

THC-P variants

Other hydrogenated or modified cannabinoids

Some may occur naturally only in trace amounts. Others are primarily produced through chemical conversion or synthesis.

They should not automatically be treated as equivalent to naturally abundant marijuana cannabinoids.

Human safety data for many of these compounds are extremely limited.

Which Cannabinoids Get You High?

Delta-9 THC is the primary cannabinoid responsible for marijuana’s intoxicating effects and produces the characteristic marijuana high largely through activation of CB1 receptors in the brain.

Delta-8 THC is also intoxicating. A 2025 randomized, double-blind crossover trial found that delta-8 produced dose-dependent psychoactive effects similar to delta-9 THC, although it was less potent on a milligram-for-milligram basis. In that study, 40 milligrams of delta-8 produced effects comparable to 20 milligrams of delta-9 THC on many measures.

CBD, CBG and CBC are generally considered non-intoxicating and do not produce the classic high associated with THC.

THCA is also non-intoxicating in its unheated form, but decarboxylation converts THCA into delta-9 THC. This means high-THCA marijuana can become strongly intoxicating when smoked, vaporized or otherwise heated.

CBN appears substantially less intoxicating than THC. In an early controlled human study, 50 milligrams of CBN alone did not produce the feelings of being high, drugged or drunk seen with THC, although CBN appeared to enhance some effects when administered alongside THC.

THCV has distinct, dose-dependent pharmacology and generally has not produced a conventional THC-like high at doses studied in humans. In a placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover trial, 10 milligrams of THCV was subjectively indistinguishable from placebo and reduced the perceived intensity of some THC effects when the two were administered together.

THCP may be particularly potent. In the study that first identified naturally occurring THCP, researchers found that it had approximately 33 times greater binding affinity for the CB1 receptor than delta-9 THC and produced strong THC-like cannabinoid effects in animals. Controlled human studies have not yet established how its intoxicating potency compares with THC in people.

Overall, delta-9 THC and delta-8 THC are clearly established as intoxicating cannabinoids. THCP appears likely to be intoxicating based on its pharmacology and animal research, while CBD, CBG and CBC are considered non-intoxicating. THCA can become intoxicating after conversion to THC, while CBN and THCV have more limited or distinct psychoactive profiles.

Non-Intoxicating Does Not Mean Inactive

A cannabinoid does not need to produce a high to have meaningful biological effects.

CBD is the clearest example. Although it is non-intoxicating, CBD interacts with multiple molecular targets and can produce measurable physiological effects. It can also cause drowsiness, influence liver enzymes and affect how the body processes certain medications.

The same principle applies to many minor cannabinoids. Laboratory research has found that CBD, CBG, CBN and CBC can each influence sensory neurons through overlapping but distinct mechanisms, while other studies have identified biological activity involving cannabinoid receptors and additional molecular targets.

This distinction is important when evaluating cannabinoids such as CBG, CBC, THCV, CBDV and the acidic cannabinoids. A compound can influence pain signaling, inflammation, neurological activity, metabolism or other biological processes without producing THC-like intoxication.

In other words, “doesn’t get you high” and “does nothing” are very different statements.

Cannabinoids vs. Terpenes: What’s the Difference?

Cannabinoids and terpenes are two different families of compounds found in marijuana and hemp.

Cannabinoids include THC, CBD, CBG, CBN and the other compounds discussed throughout this guide. Many cannabinoids interact directly or indirectly with the body’s endocannabinoid system, although their individual pharmacology can differ substantially.

Terpenes are aromatic compounds responsible for much of marijuana’s smell and flavor. Researchers have identified more than 150 terpenes in Cannabis sativa, with several occurring commonly across different varieties.

Common cannabis terpenes include:

• Myrcene
• Limonene
• Pinene
• Linalool
• Terpinolene
• Beta-caryophyllene

Terpenes are not unique to cannabis. Limonene is abundant in citrus fruits, pinene occurs in numerous coniferous plants, and linalool is found in lavender and many other aromatic plants.

Terpenes can also have biological effects of their own. Research has investigated cannabis terpenes for potential anti-inflammatory, pain-modulating, neurological and other effects. A scientific review of cannabis-derived terpenes examined compounds including myrcene, pinene, limonene, linalool and beta-caryophyllene and their potential pharmacological properties.

Beta-caryophyllene is an especially interesting example of how the two chemical categories can overlap biologically. A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that beta-caryophyllene selectively binds to and activates CB2 cannabinoid receptors, which are involved in immune and inflammatory signaling.

That activity has led researchers to describe beta-caryophyllene as a “dietary cannabinoid,” but chemically it remains a terpene rather than a phytocannabinoid.

Cannabinoids and terpenes should therefore be viewed as separate chemical families that can sometimes influence overlapping biological systems. Researchers are also studying whether combinations of cannabinoids and terpenes can interact in ways that alter their effects, a concept commonly referred to as the “entourage effect,” although the extent and clinical significance of those interactions remain under investigation.

How Does CBD Affect THC?

CBD can influence the effects of THC, but the interaction is more complex than simply “canceling out” or blocking a high.

The outcome can depend on:

• Dose
• Ratio of CBD to THC
• Timing
• Route of administration
• Individual biology

Some studies have found that CBD can modify certain THC-related effects, while others have found little evidence that CBD consistently reduces intoxication.

In a randomized clinical trial involving 18 adults, participants consumed 20 milligrams of THC either alone or with 640 milligrams of CBD. The high oral dose of CBD substantially increased blood concentrations of THC and its active metabolite 11-hydroxy-THC and intensified several subjective, cognitive and psychomotor effects of THC.

Researchers attributed much of this interaction to CBD slowing the metabolism of THC, illustrating that CBD can sometimes increase rather than reduce THC exposure.

Other controlled research has produced different results depending on the dose and formulation, reinforcing that CBD and THC interact in ways that cannot be reduced to a simple rule.

CBD therefore should not be viewed as a guaranteed antidote to THC intoxication. It can meaningfully alter THC’s effects, but whether those effects are reduced, enhanced or largely unchanged depends on how the two cannabinoids are used together.

What Do Cannabinoid Ratios Mean?

Cannabinoid ratios describe the relative amounts of two or more cannabinoids in a product.

For example, a CBD:THC ratio of 2:1 means the product contains twice as much CBD as THC.

Common examples include:

CBD:THC Ratio	What It Means	Example Amounts Per Serving
1:1	Equal amounts of CBD and THC	5 milligrams CBD and 5 milligrams THC
2:1	Twice as much CBD as THC	10 milligrams CBD and 5 milligrams THC
20:1	Twenty times as much CBD as THC	20 milligrams CBD and 1 milligram THC

Always check which cannabinoid is listed first. A CBD:THC ratio of 2:1 means something different from a THC:CBD ratio of 2:1.

Ratios also do not tell you the total dose.

A serving containing 2 milligrams CBD and 1 milligram THC has the same 2:1 ratio as one containing 20 milligrams CBD and 10 milligrams THC. The second contains ten times as much of each cannabinoid.

Some products list three or more cannabinoids, such as THC:CBD:CBN. The same principle applies: each number represents the relative amount of the corresponding compound.

When comparing products, check both the ratio and the actual milligrams of each cannabinoid per serving. Also distinguish between amounts per serving and amounts in the entire package.

How to Read a Cannabinoid Lab Report

A certificate of analysis, commonly called a COA, can show which cannabinoids a laboratory detected and their concentrations.

Common entries include:

THCA

Delta-9 THC

CBD

CBDA

CBG

CBGA

CBN

CBC

THCV

Cannabinoids may be reported as:

Percentage by weight

Milligrams per gram

Milligrams per serving

Milligrams per package

Understanding acidic cannabinoids is particularly important.

A flower product can contain relatively little delta-9 THC while containing a large amount of THCA that converts to THC when heated.

That is why laboratories and regulators often calculate “total THC.”

A commonly used formula is:

Total THC = delta-9 THC + (THCA × 0.877)

The 0.877 factor accounts for the molecular weight lost when THCA releases carbon dioxide during decarboxylation.

A similar calculation may be used for CBD:

Total CBD = CBD + (CBDA × 0.877)

Why Cannabinoid Percentages Don’t Tell the Whole Story

THC percentage is useful for understanding how concentrated a marijuana product is, but it does not perfectly predict how strong that product will feel to a particular person.

The actual experience can be influenced by:

• Dose consumed
• Cannabinoid ratios
• Terpene profile
• Route of administration
• Tolerance
• Metabolism
• Food intake
• Previous marijuana experience
• Individual genetics and biology
• Product formulation

Human research illustrates this distinction. In a study involving 121 regular marijuana users, participants used either marijuana flower containing 16% or 24% THC or concentrates containing 70% or 90% THC. Concentrate users reached substantially higher blood THC levels, but researchers did not find correspondingly greater subjective intoxication or short-term impairment across the higher-potency products.

Researchers suggested that factors such as tolerance and self-titration may help explain why higher THC concentrations do not always translate directly into proportionally stronger perceived effects. People using stronger products may, for example, take smaller inhalations or consume less material.

Route of administration also matters. Smoking, vaping and eating THC produce different patterns of absorption and metabolism, which can change the onset, intensity and duration of effects even when the amount of THC is similar.

THC percentage therefore remains an important piece of information, particularly when comparing flower and concentrates, but it is only one factor determining the overall experience. The amount actually consumed and the person consuming it can be just as important as the percentage printed on the label.

Why Edible Cannabinoids Can Feel Different

Route of administration can substantially change how cannabinoids are absorbed, metabolized and experienced.

When THC is inhaled through smoking or vaping, it enters the bloodstream rapidly and reaches the brain within minutes. Oral THC follows a different pathway. After being swallowed, it passes through the digestive system and liver before much of it reaches the bloodstream.

During this process, the liver converts some THC into 11-hydroxy-THC, an active metabolite that also produces psychoactive effects. In a controlled human study of oral cannabis, researchers detected substantial concentrations of both THC and 11-hydroxy-THC following consumption of cannabis brownies containing 10, 25 or 50 milligrams of THC.

This first-pass metabolism helps explain why edibles can produce a different experience from inhaled marijuana, including a slower onset and effects that can last considerably longer.

Oral CBD is also strongly influenced by digestion and metabolism. Food can make a particularly large difference. In a 2025 randomized crossover study, consuming a CBD-rich extract with a high-fat meal increased peak CBD blood concentrations more than 17-fold and total CBD exposure nearly 10-fold compared with taking the same dose while fasting.

Earlier controlled research with pharmaceutical CBD similarly found that a high-fat meal substantially increased CBD absorption, demonstrating that the same oral dose can produce very different cannabinoid exposure depending on how it is consumed.

Route of administration, formulation and food intake can therefore be nearly as important as the number of milligrams on a product label when determining how an oral cannabinoid affects the body.

Which Cannabinoids Have the Strongest Scientific Evidence?

THC and CBD have by far the largest human research bases among naturally occurring cannabinoids.

Both have been studied in thousands of people across numerous controlled clinical trials. Researchers have examined THC and CBD for pain, nausea, appetite, epilepsy, neurological conditions, sleep, psychiatric disorders and many other potential applications. A major scientific review of cannabinoids as therapeutic agents describes THC and CBD as the most extensively characterized phytocannabinoids while also highlighting the growing research into lesser-known compounds.

Among minor cannabinoids, however, human research has expanded considerably in recent years:

• CBG has controlled human evidence, including a randomized, double-blind crossover trial that found reductions in anxiety and stress after a 20-milligram dose, as well as more recent controlled research examining sleep.
• CBN now has several controlled human sleep studies, including a 1,020-person randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial that found significant improvement in sleep disturbance with a 50-milligram dose.
• THCV has human research examining glucose regulation, appetite and weight management. A 62-person randomized trial found improvements in fasting glucose and pancreatic beta-cell function, while a 2025 placebo-controlled study found weight loss and reduced abdominal circumference among participants receiving THCV-CBD combinations.
• CBDV has reached Phase II clinical testing for epilepsy and has also been studied in people with autism and neuropathic pain. In its 162-person focal-seizure trial, participants receiving CBDV experienced a substantial reduction in seizures from baseline, although the unusually large placebo response prevented a statistically significant difference between groups.
• CBC has a substantial preclinical research base involving pain, inflammation, neuroprotection and other potential applications, while controlled human therapeutic research remains much less developed.
• THCA, CBDA and CBGA have growing evidence of biological activity and potential therapeutic properties, particularly from laboratory and animal research, with human pharmacokinetic studies beginning to provide additional information.
• THCP has unusually strong activity at cannabinoid receptors and demonstrated THC-like effects in the study that first identified it in cannabis, but controlled human research remains limited.

The scientific evidence is therefore best viewed as a spectrum rather than a divide between “proven” and “unproven” cannabinoids. THC and CBD remain the most extensively studied, but CBG, CBN, THCV, CBDV and several other minor cannabinoids now have meaningful human research, while compounds such as CBC, THCA, CBDA, CBGA and THCP are at earlier stages of clinical investigation.

As research expands, some of these minor cannabinoids may ultimately develop evidence bases much closer to those now established for THC and CBD.

Are Any Cannabinoid Medicines FDA Approved?

Yes. Several prescription medicines containing cannabis-derived or cannabis-related compounds have received FDA approval.

The best-known is Epidiolex, which contains purified cannabis-derived CBD. It is approved to treat seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, Dravet syndrome and tuberous sclerosis complex.

The FDA has also approved three synthetic cannabis-related prescription drugs:

• Marinol, containing dronabinol, a synthetic form of delta-9 THC
• Syndros, also containing dronabinol
• Cesamet, containing nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid with a chemical structure similar to THC

Marinol and Syndros are approved for uses including chemotherapy-related nausea and vomiting and anorexia associated with weight loss in people with AIDS. Cesamet is approved for nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy.

These approvals demonstrate that individual cannabinoids and cannabinoid-related compounds can be developed into medicines with established therapeutic uses. The FDA has not, however, approved the marijuana plant itself as a treatment for a disease or condition, and ordinary retail CBD, CBG, CBN and other cannabinoid products are not FDA-approved drugs simply because the same or related compounds are being investigated medically.

How Can Cannabinoids Interact With Medications?

Cannabinoids can interact with prescription and over-the-counter medications, particularly when they affect the same biological systems or the enzymes responsible for metabolizing drugs.

CBD is the best documented example. Research underlying the prescription CBD medication Epidiolex has shown that CBD can alter the metabolism and blood concentrations of other medications, while other drugs can also change how CBD is processed by the body.

CBD can influence several drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters, including CYP2C19, CYP1A2, CYP2C8 and others. The FDA-approved Epidiolex prescribing information documents interactions or potential interactions involving medications such as clobazam, diazepam, stiripentol, everolimus, tacrolimus and certain other drugs metabolized through these pathways.

Potentially important interactions can involve:

• Anti-seizure medications
• Sedatives and benzodiazepines
• Some blood thinners
• Immunosuppressant medications
• Drugs metabolized through certain cytochrome P450 enzymes
• Other medications whose effects can change significantly when their blood concentrations rise or fall

THC and other cannabinoids may also interact with medications through metabolic or pharmacological mechanisms. Research into these interactions is much more extensive for CBD and THC than for minor cannabinoids such as CBG, CBN, CBC and THCV.

As research on minor cannabinoids expands, their interaction profiles are likely to become clearer. For now, people taking prescription medications, particularly medications with narrow therapeutic ranges or significant sedating effects, may want to discuss regular cannabinoid use with a healthcare provider.

Are Minor Cannabinoids Safe?

Available human research suggests that several minor cannabinoids are generally well tolerated at the doses studied so far, although the amount of safety data varies considerably between compounds.

For example, a 2024 randomized trial of CBG reported no evidence of intoxication or impairment after a 20-milligram dose, while a large randomized trial involving 1,020 adults found CBN was generally well tolerated across doses of 25, 50 and 100 milligrams.

THCV has also been administered in controlled human studies. In a 13-week randomized trial involving people with type 2 diabetes, THCV was well tolerated, while controlled studies of CBDV have similarly provided useful human safety information alongside research into its neurological effects.

The main limitation is that minor cannabinoids have not been studied for as long, or in as many people, as THC and CBD. Questions involving long-term daily use, medication interactions, pregnancy and reproductive health, and very high doses remain less thoroughly characterized for cannabinoids such as CBG, CBN, CBC, THCV and CBDV.

Product quality is a separate consideration from the safety of the cannabinoid itself. Commercial products can vary in cannabinoid concentration, purity and manufacturing quality, making independent laboratory testing particularly useful for verifying what a product actually contains.

It is therefore helpful to distinguish between three different questions:

• Whether a cannabinoid has been well tolerated in controlled human studies
• What is known about its safety with long-term or high-dose use
• Whether a particular commercial product is accurately manufactured and tested

For several minor cannabinoids, the first question is beginning to be answered by human trials. The second and third depend much more heavily on the specific cannabinoid, dose and product.

Can Cannabinoid Products Affect a Drug Test?

Yes. Products containing THC can produce a positive marijuana drug test, including some products marketed primarily for their CBD content.

Common urine tests screen for a THC metabolite, a substance the body produces as it breaks down THC. They do not simply test for every cannabinoid discussed in this guide.

Pure CBD is different from THC. In a small controlled study, Johns Hopkins researchers found that a single exposure to pure CBD did not produce a positive result under standard federal urine-testing criteria. However, a CBD-dominant cannabis product containing a small amount of THC produced positive results in some participants.

Full-spectrum products may contain THC, making their actual composition important for anyone subject to testing. Labels such as “broad-spectrum,” “CBD isolate” or “THC-free” should not be treated as guarantees. Johns Hopkins researchers have detected THC in some retail CBD products labeled “THC-free.”

The same practical question applies to products marketed for CBG, CBN or other minor cannabinoids: what else does the product contain?

A laboratory report matching the product’s batch can help readers evaluate its contents, but it cannot guarantee a negative drug test. Being marketed as non-intoxicating does not establish that a finished product is free of THC.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are cannabinoids?

Cannabinoids are chemical compounds that can interact with the body’s endocannabinoid system and numerous other biological targets. Marijuana and hemp produce a wide range of naturally occurring phytocannabinoids, including THC, CBD, CBG, CBN, CBC, THCV and others.

What are the two main cannabinoids?

THC and CBD are the two most extensively studied and widely recognized cannabinoids.

THC is the primary intoxicating cannabinoid in marijuana and is responsible for most of the plant’s characteristic high. CBD is generally non-intoxicating and has a substantially different pharmacological profile.

How many cannabinoids are in marijuana?

Scientists have identified well over 100 phytocannabinoids in Cannabis sativa. Scientific reviews have described more than 150 cannabinoids, with the number continuing to evolve as researchers characterize lesser-known compounds.

Which cannabinoid gets you the highest?

Delta-9 THC is the principal cannabinoid responsible for marijuana’s high.

Delta-8 THC is also intoxicating, with controlled human research showing THC-like effects that are generally less potent on a milligram-for-milligram basis than delta-9 THC.

THCP may also be strongly intoxicating based on its cannabinoid receptor activity and animal research, although controlled human studies have not yet established its potency relative to THC.

Is CBD a cannabinoid?

Yes. CBD, or cannabidiol, is one of the most extensively studied phytocannabinoids and is generally considered non-intoxicating.

CBD has been investigated for epilepsy, anxiety, pain, inflammation, sleep and numerous neurological and psychiatric applications. Purified CBD is also the active ingredient in the FDA-approved seizure medication Epidiolex.

Is CBG stronger than CBD?

CBG and CBD have different pharmacological profiles, so describing one as universally “stronger” than the other is not especially useful.

Neither typically produces the characteristic THC high. CBG interacts with several cannabinoid, adrenergic and other receptors, while CBD influences a broad range of molecular targets.

Controlled human research has also begun identifying distinct CBG effects. A 2024 randomized, double-blind crossover trial found that 20 milligrams of CBG significantly reduced anxiety and stress without producing intoxication or impairment.

Is CBG the mother cannabinoid?

CBG is commonly called the “mother cannabinoid,” but CBGA is the more scientifically precise compound behind that description.

CBGA serves as a central biosynthetic precursor that marijuana and hemp plants use to produce THCA, CBDA and CBCA. CBG itself primarily forms when CBGA undergoes decarboxylation. Research into cannabinoid biosynthesis explains this pathway in detail.

Is CBN good for sleep?

Human research increasingly suggests that CBN may have sleep-related benefits.

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial involving 1,020 adults found that 50 milligrams of CBN significantly improved sleep disturbance compared with placebo. Other controlled studies have reported improvements in nighttime awakenings and some measures of subjective sleep quality.

Results have varied depending on dose and study design, but CBN now has a growing body of controlled human sleep research.

Does THCV suppress appetite or help with weight loss?

THCV is being actively studied for appetite, weight management and other metabolic effects.

A randomized clinical trial involving 62 people with type 2 diabetes found that THCV improved fasting glucose and pancreatic beta-cell function.

A more recent placebo-controlled study involving 44 adults found significant weight loss and reductions in abdominal circumference among participants receiving combinations of THCV and CBD for 90 days. Because THCV was administered with CBD, additional studies are needed to determine the effects of THCV alone.

Does THCA get you high?

THCA itself does not produce the characteristic THC high in its unheated form.

However, heat causes THCA to undergo decarboxylation, converting it into intoxicating delta-9 THC. Smoking, vaping or cooking high-THCA marijuana can therefore produce substantial intoxication.

Is THCP 33 times stronger than THC?

THCP has shown exceptionally strong activity at cannabinoid receptors, but “33 times stronger” is an oversimplification.

In the 2019 study that first identified THCP in Cannabis sativa, researchers found that THCP had approximately 33 times greater binding affinity for the CB1 receptor than delta-9 THC.

That does not mean a THCP product will necessarily produce a high exactly 33 times stronger than THC. Human potency also depends on dose, absorption, metabolism, receptor activation and other factors. Controlled human trials have not yet established a precise THCP-to-THC potency ratio.

Is delta-8 THC natural?

Yes. Small amounts of delta-8 THC occur naturally in cannabis.

However, the plant generally contains only low concentrations, so most concentrated commercial delta-8 products are manufactured by chemically converting hemp-derived CBD into delta-8 THC.

Controlled human research has confirmed that delta-8 produces genuine THC-like psychoactive effects.

Do all cannabinoids interact with CB1 and CB2?

No.

THC directly activates CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, but cannabinoids differ considerably in how they interact with the body.

CBD, CBG, CBC, THCV and other cannabinoids can influence cannabinoid receptors indirectly or interact with entirely different molecular targets, including serotonin receptors, adrenergic receptors, TRP channels and metabolic signaling pathways.

Are terpenes cannabinoids?

No. Terpenes and cannabinoids are separate families of compounds.

Terpenes are aromatic compounds responsible for much of marijuana’s smell and flavor and can also have biological effects of their own.

One particularly interesting example is beta-caryophyllene. Although chemically a terpene, research has shown that it selectively activates CB2 cannabinoid receptors.

Does CBD cancel out THC?

CBD can alter THC’s effects, but it does not simply or reliably “cancel out” a marijuana high.

The interaction depends on factors including dose, CBD-to-THC ratio, timing and route of administration.

In one randomized human trial, a large oral dose of CBD actually increased blood concentrations of THC and its active metabolite and intensified several THC-related effects by slowing THC metabolism.

Are cannabinoids medicine?

Some cannabinoid-based medicines have established medical uses and are FDA approved.

Epidiolex contains purified cannabis-derived CBD and is approved for several seizure disorders. The FDA has also approved medications containing dronabinol, a synthetic form of delta-9 THC, and nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid structurally similar to THC.

Many other cannabinoids are being investigated for potential therapeutic applications, with the amount of clinical evidence varying considerably by compound and condition.

Are minor cannabinoids better than THC or CBD?

Minor cannabinoids are not simply weaker or stronger versions of THC and CBD. They have distinct chemical structures, receptor activity and potential applications.

CBG has shown effects on anxiety and stress in controlled human research. CBN has an expanding body of sleep research. THCV has been studied for metabolic and weight-related effects, while CBDV has reached Phase II clinical testing for neurological conditions.

THC and CBD currently have much larger human evidence bases, but research into minor cannabinoids is expanding rapidly and continues to identify potentially useful properties unique to individual compounds.

The Bottom Line

Cannabinoids are a diverse group of compounds with distinct pharmacological properties, potential benefits and levels of scientific evidence.

THC and CBD remain the most extensively studied cannabinoids. THC is the primary intoxicating compound in marijuana and acts largely through CB1 receptors, while CBD is generally non-intoxicating and interacts with a much broader range of biological targets. Both have substantial human research behind them, and cannabinoid-based medicines containing CBD or synthetic THC-related compounds have received FDA approval for specific conditions.

Research into minor cannabinoids has expanded considerably in recent years.

CBG now has controlled human evidence, including a randomized, double-blind trial that found reductions in anxiety and stress without intoxication or impairment.

CBN has developed one of the stronger emerging human evidence bases among minor cannabinoids, particularly for sleep. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial involving 1,020 adults found improvements in sleep disturbance among participants receiving CBN, while other controlled trials have reported benefits involving nighttime awakenings and overall sleep disturbance.

THCV has attracted growing interest for metabolic health and weight management. Human research has found improvements in fasting glucose and pancreatic beta-cell function, while a 2025 placebo-controlled study found weight loss and reductions in abdominal circumference among participants receiving combinations of THCV and CBD.

CBDV has progressed into Phase II clinical research for neurological conditions. In a 162-person focal-seizure trial, participants receiving CBDV experienced a substantial reduction in seizure frequency from baseline, although a similarly large improvement in the placebo group prevented the difference between groups from reaching statistical significance.

CBC has a growing preclinical research base involving pain, inflammation, neuroprotection and other potential applications, while controlled human therapeutic research remains at an earlier stage.

THCA, CBDA, CBGA and CBCA are more than simply chemical precursors. A 2026 review of acidic cannabinoids highlighted neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant and antiproliferative activity across this group and identified acidic cannabinoids as a promising area for future therapeutic research.

THCP is one of the more striking recent discoveries in cannabinoid science. The 2019 study that identified THCP in Cannabis sativa found approximately 33 times greater CB1 receptor binding affinity than delta-9 THC and strong THC-like activity in animal experiments. Human research is still needed to determine exactly how its potency and effects compare with THC.

Cannabinoid science is advancing rapidly, and the evidence no longer consists simply of extensive research on THC and CBD alongside speculation about everything else. Several minor cannabinoids now have controlled human studies, while others have substantial laboratory and animal evidence that provides a foundation for future clinical research.

The key is understanding where each cannabinoid currently sits on that research spectrum. Laboratory findings can identify promising mechanisms, animal studies can demonstrate biological effects, and controlled human trials can show whether those effects translate to people. Together, those different levels of evidence are steadily building a clearer picture of what individual cannabinoids may be capable of.

Scientific and Government Sources

This guide was prepared using peer-reviewed research and information from authoritative scientific and government sources, including:

• National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health: Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need to Know
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration: FDA and Cannabis: Research and Drug Approval Process
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration: CBD Safety and Liver Enzyme Elevations in a Randomized Trial
• National Academies/NCBI: The Endocannabinoid System and Its Signaling Systems
• 2024 randomized controlled trial: Acute Effects of Cannabigerol on Anxiety, Stress and Mood
• Randomized controlled trial: Safety and Effects of CBN With and Without CBD on Sleep Quality
• 1,020-person randomized controlled trial: CBN and Melatonin for Improving Sleep
• 2026 randomized controlled trial: Cannabinol for Acute Treatment of Insomnia Disorder
• 2026 review: Cannabichromene: Biosynthesis, Pharmacology, Therapeutic Potential and Translational Perspectives
• Randomized clinical trial: Efficacy and Safety of CBD and THCV in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes
• Placebo-controlled study: Weight Loss and Metabolic Effects of THCV and CBD
• Phase II randomized clinical trial: Cannabidivarin as Add-on Therapy in Participants With Inadequately Controlled Focal Seizures
• 2025 human laboratory study: Pharmacokinetics of CBD, CBDA, THC and THCA in a Full-Spectrum Cannabinoid Product
• 2026 review: Therapeutic Potential of Acidic Cannabinoids: An Update
• Peer-reviewed review: Minor Cannabinoids: Biosynthesis, Molecular Pharmacology and Potential Therapeutic Uses
• 2024 comprehensive review: The Entourage Effect in Cannabis Medicinal Products
• Controlled human study: Oral Delta-8 THC Compared With Delta-9 THC
• Controlled human study: CBD Can Alter THC Exposure and Effects
• Original THCP discovery study: A Novel Phytocannabinoid Isolated From Cannabis sativa With Cannabimimetic Activity Higher Than Delta-9 THC: THCP

Research into cannabinoids is developing rapidly. The Marijuana Herald will update this guide as meaningful new human evidence and major scientific reviews become available.